![]() This study's implications include the benefit of combining these measures for nurturing EFL learners' reading rates, the utility of oral re-reading in the classroom, and the overall contribution extensive reading has upon reading and listening skills. Reading effectively is considered an essential gateway to greater earning potential and a better quality of life. In light of the English language's reach, not only as a global lingua franca but as the language for technology, science, and advanced research, the connection between English reading fluency and individuals achieving their professional or personal goals cannot be overemphasized. To further stress the importance of reading fluently, prominent authorities on second language (L2) reading instruction, Grabe and Stoller (2013), highlighted: In the 21st century, productive and educated citizens will require even stronger literacy abilities (including both reading and writing) in an increasingly broad range of societal settings. Likewise, the age of technology growth is likely to make greater, rather than lesser, demands on people's reading abilities. xiv) Targeting the development of elementary-level English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' silent reading rates, this quasi-experimental study evaluated the effectiveness of a three-pronged reading fluency training program of extensive reading (ER), repeated oral reading (ROR), and timed reading (TR). In the following section, L2 reading fluency is defined before a review of relevant literature. Milliner: The Effects of Combining Timed Reading, Repeated Oral Reading, and Extensive Reading 192 Reading in a Foreign Language 33(2) Literature Review Reading fluency Fluency training in the L2 classroom allows learners to use the language they already know and "make language knowledge become readily available for use" (Nation, 1991, p. Two fundamental components of fluency are attention to speed and accuracy (comprehension). Interestingly, when talking about most macro-language skills (e.g., writing), speed increases are often detrimental to accuracy. As for reading, however, there appears to be a somewhat inverse relationship (Grabe, 2010). Increased reading rate correlates with improved comprehension, and the reading experience starts to become enjoyable. Nation (2005) presented another helpful perspective on this relationship when he noted that reading speeds less than 100 words-per-minute (wpm) may handicap learners' memory retention and concentration. For these reasons, fluent reading in the L2 is a "key indicator of a highly skilled reader" (Grabe, 2010, p. ![]() Reading fluency involves the rapid, smooth, accurate reading of connected text with little focus on the mechanics of reading (Goldfus, 2014).ħ3) and a skill that demands greater attention from foreign language teachers. Developing a degree of automaticity, particularly in the deployment of lower-level reading processes (e.g., word recognition, syntactic parsing, and the formation of semantic propositions), is critical for reading fluency growth (Grabe & Stoller, 2013). Only after these lower-order processes are automatized can a reader have enough mental space to engage the higher-order cognitive processes critical for text compression (e.g., inferencing and attending to semantic cues). While there are several variables of interest when measuring reading fluency, this study focuses on reading rate most notably, reading rate according to Carver's "rauding theory" (1990, p. Rauding concerns the rate at which learners attend to each word in a text while understanding the complete thoughts or themes presented in the sentences of text (Carver, 1990). ![]() Therefore, this study was interested in the rate or speed at which EFL learners could read each word of a text while maintaining a respectable comprehension level. In the following sections, several approaches suggested for nurturing L2 learners' reading fluency are presented alongside some of the research describing their efficacy.
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